Physical inactivity is considered the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality [1]. On a global level [2], more than 80% of school age youth are physically inactive. More specifically, in Spain, gender differences have been documented, with girls being overall less active than boys (16.3% vs. 8.2%) [3,4]. To counteract this problem, regular physical activity is recommended as it provides numerous health benefits, such as reductions in hypertension, coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, breast cancer, and stroke [5]. Additionally, physical activity improves body weight control and promotes muscle and joint functioning [5], improves concentration, and enhances children’s school performance [6,7].

A number of factors have been shown to influence physical activity levels in children and adolescents. These include the school environment, immigration, culture, and the social and community context where the child lives [8-13]. The school environment plays an important role in the promotion of physical activity, thanks to physical education and the organization of after school activities that promote the practice of sports, games, and other physical activities [7,11,14]. In Spain, the 2012 national health survey [4] documents differences between people who were born in Spain and those who were born abroad but subsequently immigrated to Spain. For people over the age of 15, 43.8% of those born in Spain (i.e. the native population) were sedentary, compared to 48.3% of people born abroad (i.e. the immigrant population) [4]. This finding is supported by previous studies [9,10] that show that children of foreign parents are less physically active.

Ethnicity and culture are important determinants with regard to the performance of physical activity in immigrant children. In a study of multi-ethnic parents’ views of children’s physical activity in North West England, Trigwell et al. [10] reported that on an environmental level, barriers to physical activity included safety concerns, and both a lack of resources and lack of access. Additional barriers were noted for ethnic groups with a Muslim faith (Asian Bangladeshi, black Somali, Yemeni), who reported a lack of culturally appropriate physical activity opportunities for girls. In addition, the perspective of immigrant parents regarding physical activity may condition the performance of the same in their children. For example, parents can positively influence their offspring and act as role models, by providing emotional support, economic resources (covering expenses), and by providing transportation with their car [7,12]. In contrast, parents may also limit their child’s physical activity when they perceive that insufficient safety conditions are available for the performance of physical activity [7,10,13], or when they feel that the curricular content of the child should be oriented towards mental-cognitive training as opposed to physical education [15].

Where an immigrant child lives also impacts their level of physical activity. Aspects such as the presence of a means of transport, sports centers, the level of safety and crime in the neighborhood and the presence of parks are all relevant when performing physical activity, via games and sports, and/or allowing children to walk to school on their own [7,12,15]. Lin et al [16], in their study about neighborhood social environments and children’s independent mobility, described how children with parents who perceived their neighborhood as being safe and more cohesive, and who lived closer to their child’s school, were more likely to allow them to travel to school unaccompanied. For New Zealanders, European, Maori, Samoan, and other Pacific parents in Australia [16], and also for Asian minority parents in London, and Turkish minority parents in Germany [17], security, danger, and crime were common concerns that impacted allowing their children to go out alone.

However, these aforementioned factors do not act independently of each other. Indeed, certain environments (social and physical environments) and policies, can make a community and its environment either more favorable or more adverse toward the promotion of physical activity [18]. To better understand this relationship between individual and environmental factors, ecological models [18] focus on the relationship between people and their physical and sociocultural environments and show that environmental contexts are predictors of health behaviors, such as physical activity [18]. Ecological models incorporate a wide range of influences at multiple levels. Levels of variables or dimensional studies included in ecological models of physical activity include intrapersonal (biological, psychological), interpersonal/cultural, organizational variables, or those related to the physical environment (built, natural), and policy (laws, rules, regulations, codes) [18]. Ecological models are particularly useful in assisting research and practice when applied to a specific behavior since unique environmental and policy factors may influence each behavior [2]. Ecological models identify factors and design interventions to influence multiple levels, including individuals, social environments, organizations, built environments, and policies, in order to achieve population improvements in public health [18].

Despite accumulating evidence of factors that promote physical activity among immigrant children, there is little research on the parents’ perspective and that of other physical activity stakeholders (teachers, community leaders). In Spain, a gap exists in the identification of barriers and/or difficulties for the promotion of physical activity, both from the parents’ perspective and that of the members of the social and community environment, such as teachers, school principals, and social community leaders.

The purpose of our study was to describe barriers for the promotion of physical activity, perceived by parents, teachers, a school principal, and social community leaders. The question that guided our study was: What barriers do parents and teachers encounter when promoting physical activity among recently immigrated children who face a new cultural context?

The guidelines for conducting qualitative studies established by the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research [19] and the Standards for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) [20] were followed. Qualitative methods are useful for understanding the beliefs, values, and motivations that underlie individual health behaviors [21]. Furthermore, qualitative studies have been used to study parents’ perceptions of physical activity and to identify strategies to incorporate into the prevention of childhood diseases [22]; to explore the links between parents’ and children’s perspectives on culture and healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as physical activity [10,22]; and to examine social neighborhood environments and children’s mobility [16], and the process for increasing physical activity among elementary-aged children [23]. The design and manuscript structure were inspired by qualitative studies reported by Palacios-Ceña et al. [24].

Twenty-five participants were included in the study with a mean age of 43.4 ± 8.7 years. See Table 1 for the sociodemographic profile of the participants. The teachers and the principal had 16.6 ± 8.4 years of teaching experience. The country of birth of the respective parents was Peru (4), Colombia (2), Ethiopia (1), Venezuela (1), Guatemala (2), and Senegal (2). The themes representing the participants’ experiences were extracted from the unstructured interviews, FGs, and semi-structured interviews. Nine themes emerged from the material analyzed: (a) the meaning of physical activity, (b) gender inequalities, (c) academic burden, (d) lack of social contact, (e) expenses and family economy, (f) lack of infrastructure and natural surroundings, (g) time constraints, (h) fear and insecurity, and (i) the reason for immigrating. We included the narratives taken directly from the data collection regarding the themes identified in this study.

Within the findings, the multilevel ecological model by Sallis et al. was used [18] to identify the most relevant levels of the model within the themes that were obtained. A summary of the levels of the ecological model is featured in Tables 6-14.

Our results revealed a number of barriers for physical activity promotion in immigrant children from the perspective of parents, teachers, a principal, and community leaders. Our study continues a line of research on the factors that impact upon and influence the practice of physical activity and the implementation of a healthy lifestyle in immigrant children [10,17,22].

Previous studies regarding physical activity in children and teenagers [33,34] show how children and teenagers whose parents were immigrants practiced less physical activity compared to native children and teenagers. In the USA, Brewer et al [33] reported that this disparity is not attenuated by a child’s socioeconomic, family, or neighborhood characteristics. Also, patterns of physical activity have been found to vary according to the immigrant generation status (being born in a new country vs. being born in the country of origin), and the process of acculturation [33,34].

Our participants did not agree with the existence of gender inequality in the practice of physical activity; however, many parents acknowledged that this type of bias exists in their country of origin. The existence of inequality in the practice of physical activity among men and women can be considered a global phenomenon [35]. In Spain, the 2016 survey on sports habits by the Ministry of Education and Culture [36] shows that boys mostly practice sports such as soccer, cycling, and swimming, and that girls mainly practice gymnastics, hiking, and swimming. Previous studies [10,37] show that this gender difference exists even in recess hours during school, where the amount of physical activity performed varies (greater in boys) as well as the type of activities performed (“boys games” versus “girls games”). Culture, ethnicity, and religion may, in part, explain this gender difference in immigrant children [10,37].

Our participants perceived a significant academic burden regarding academically-oriented school activities compared to activities promoting physical skills. This is in line with Trigwell et al. [10], who reported that ethnic groups from different cultures (Asian Bangladeshi, Chinese, Yemeni) prioritized educational attainment over physical activity. In contrast, many studies [14,38] agree with the need to increase physical activity in school curricula [38] and incorporating break periods between lessons [14]. Public health recommendations highlight the pivotal role that schools and teachers play in providing equitable opportunities for physical activity for all children. Also, opportunities to increase physical activity throughout the school day should span, not only in-school time (e.g., quality recess and physical education, classroom activity breaks), but also time before school (e.g., active commuting initiatives) and after school (e.g., intramural and interscholastic sports programs) [11,38].

Our results highlight how the neighborhoods where our participants lived do not present the necessary conditions, nor do they have sufficient infrastructure, for the practice of physical activity. Previous studies [17,39] show how the neighborhood, the area of the city where they are located, the presence of parks, accessible urban transport, and comprehensive urban planning to support physical activity (walkability) all influence the performance of physical activity. More specifically, in the case of children and youth, previous studies [17,40] have shown an association between neighborhood-built environments and an increased level of physical activity (and, consequently, a decrease in sedentary time). This also applies to young immigrant children/youth of other cultures or ethnicities in Western countries [17].

Nevertheless, fear and insecurity are also major barriers for the practice of physical activity. Previous studies show how crime, insecurity, the perceived presence of “dangerous” people, and the lack of safe spaces influence the possibility of taking children to leisure activities in safe spaces (with or without physical activity) [10,13,16,17].

Previous studies [12,41] have examined the influence of parents on children’s physical activity, and the evidence for the context-specific influence of parental modelling on physical activity in childhood remains inconclusive. Along these lines, the SOPHYA Study Group [41] reported that parental modelling (physical activity practice) seems relevant for children’s physical activity (p < 0.001), and were stronger for children aged 10-12 years, although not to the same extent in all children. This conflicts with previous studies [12] which have shown that parental modeling was not associated with physical activity in children. We believe that an important barrier in the practice of physical activity in immigrant children is the socioeconomic-work situation of the parents, narrated in the themes “costs and economy,” “lack of time,” and the “motive for immigrating.” Parents choose to immigrate in order to earn a living and improve the family’s quality of life (via precarious employment or low-skilled employment with long working days), which is associated with insufficient economic resources and a lack of time for parents to invest in their children practicing physical activity, playing, and spending time together. Thus, a vicious circle is created, which can perpetuate certain activity routines in children in favor of sedentarism. In Spain, the National Immigrant Survey [42] describes how Latin American immigrants are labeled as economic immigrants (seeking economic improvements) who perform poorly qualified labor, and are mainly located in the lower levels of the socio-economic scale. Two out of every five immigrants are employed in manual labor and are poorly qualified (40%) and one in four (22%) performs manual labor for which a certain level of preparation is required. This means that low-skilled jobs with low salaries are perpetuated with long work days. Previous studies [22,40] show how parents’ lack of time, long work days, family burden, low salaries, and not having enough money to cover expenses (buying sports equipment, enrolling in sports activities) negatively impacts children’s physical activity. According to former studies conducted in Spain [40,43], children and adolescents who live in neighborhoods with a lower socio-economic status are less physically active.

In Spain, previous studies [44,45] that took place in the cities of Granada and Cuenca described how the volume of traffic, the poorly signposted intersections and pedestrian crossings en route to the school, and the insecurity were perceived as barriers for the performance of physical activity in children. Additionally, the organization of space, time, and physical activity performed in recess time at school was highlighted [44]. The lack of programming any physical activity during recess time led to situations where only certain physical activities were performed, monopolizing time and space, meaning that, at times, children did not participate in any physical activity and that gender differences between boys and girls was perpetuated. An example of this is soccer playing. Gutiérrez-Zornoza et al. [45] described the influence of the environment on the physical activity habits of school children. These authors reported that children perceived that residing in gated communities or in rural areas facilitated physical activity, as opposed to residing in neighborhoods and cities. They reported that their children’s feelings of insecurity regarding road traffic, car journeys, and an overall sense of not belonging or being accepted in the neighborhood were perceived as barriers to being active. Therefore, in Spain, the following barriers are highlighted: environmental barriers (accessing the schools and safe traffic), organizational barriers in the selection of physical activities within and outside the school, and social barriers (belonging to certain neighborhoods or areas). In previous Spanish studies [44,45], no distinction was made between immigrant and native children. On the other hand, within the context of Hispanic culture, in the USA, Ross and Francis [46] described physical activity perceptions, context, facilitators, and barriers from the perspective of Hispanic immigrant-origin children. These authors reported how Latino children had negative attitudes toward physical activity that were related to physical discomfort, low athletic competence, and safety concerns. Also, children had difficulties differentiating physical activity and play, and “fun” was identified as a primary driver of physical activity preferences. Also, Turner et al. [47] researched family lifestyle behaviors of Mexican-American and Mexican immigrant fathers and mothers and their repercussion on the performance of physical activities in children. This previous study found that parents were permissive regarding their child’s sedentary habits (which involved playing video games and watching television for lengthy periods), rather than actively encouraging them to be more physically active.

In our study, one might expect that immigrants who have a common language, and a common Hispanic culture (nine parents), would not encounter difficulties for promoting physical activity in their children. However, we have found similar difficulties in previous studies [10,16,17,22] that studied physical activity in children of different ethnicities, cultures, religions, and languages. This could be explained by the fact that the socioeconomic conditions for the immigrant parents of our study are perceived as a determinant for their children regarding performing physical activity, despite not having linguistic barriers. Additionally, during the process of integration, non-native children may acquire habits and customs of the new country that could influence their health, including the adoption of sedentary habits [48].

It is worth noting that ecological model proposed by Sallis [18] was a secondary analysis applied just to contextualize the results by classifying them. However, this ecological model was not the aim of this study despite being used with an exploratory purpose. On the other hand, this ecological model could be useful as a theoretical model to guide data collection and as a primary analysis of future qualitative studies in the field of physical activity.

The implications of this study are based on the development of specific policies, programs, and actions for fostering and promoting physical activity, as well as eliminating the associated barriers and difficulties present in the community, the school, and the homes of immigrant children and their families. These interventions must be open and acting simultaneously upon different levels. Thus, for example, the development of security policies and crime control in the physical environment (i.e., parks) of a community acts upon the levels of the policy environment, setting: access and characteristics, and perceived environment. More concretely, educational policies should be included, oriented towards improving physical education in schools, policies promoting physical activity in the community, and the use of public spaces with the development of programs oriented toward the integration of immigrant children via physical activity, policies that help immigrant families with limited resources to access infrastructures and sports resources, and finally, work policies that facilitate work timetables compatible with the leisure time of both the child and the family (policy environment level, social cultural environment level, setting: access and characteristics level, perceived environment level, and intrapersonal level). Besides, there is a need to develop programs in schools to promote equality among sexes for participation in physical activities and sports while supporting physical activity in the natural environment and open spaces (i.e., parks and forest). Likewise, it is necessary to include community initiatives that facilitate the use of leisure time outside the home for performing physical activity with other children and/or with the family. Lastly, detailed information should be provided concerning physical activity proposals by integrating public and private initiatives within the community (social cultural environment level, natural environment, information environment level, setting: access and characteristics level, behavior active living domains level, perceived environment level, and intrapersonal level). Besides, it is also important to encourage urban design policies that facilitate access to open spaces within and/or close to the communities, and the development of sports resources with accessible timetables that are compatible with the workload of parents. Also, a network of appropriate means of transport should be created to ensure access to sports centers (setting: access and characteristics level, social cultural environment level, behavior active living domains level, and intrapersonal level).

Future lines of research should study the existence of barriers for the practice of physical activity in immigrant children of different nationalities, focusing also on different sports and including girls from different cultures and ethnicities. Additionally, further research should aim to develop public policies to promote physical activity in immigrant children in urban settings.

Our findings help further our understanding of the factors related with physical activity in immigrant children living in Spain. One of the strengths of this study is that this is the first study to describe the barriers for performing physical activity in immigrant children from the parents’ perspective and that of other participants living in their community and social environment.

Despite the fact that most parents in our study came from countries with cultural and linguistic ties with Spain, they perceived barriers for the performance of physical activity that were similar to the barriers identified in immigrants without cultural or linguistic ties to other European countries.

These results may be used for the development of physical activity programs in specific social contexts. These programs should: (a) reorganize the school study plans (decreasing the educational burden and the amount of homework given to children to increase the time dedicated to physical activity), (b) promote the participation of the whole family in children’s physical activity, (c) provide economic support for families with fewer resources in order to cover enrollment costs and expenses related to children’s sports practice, (d) improve the organization of sports activities and multicultural games in the community on behalf of the town halls and public institutions, and (e) encourage the development of safe natural public spaces within cities.

Future studies should incorporate the perspective of Spanish children and adolescents of immigrant origin to provide a greater depth to the development of physical activity programs and to further understand detected barriers and facilitators for the performance of physical activity.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M., D.P.-C., and C.F.-d.-l.-P.; methodology, D.P.-C., J.P.-C., J.G.-R., and R.M.; software, J.M.D.-d.-l.-M. and A.L.M.-R.; validation, J.P.-C. and J.G.-R.; formal analysis, R.M. and D.P.-C.; investigation, R.M., D.P.-C., and C.F.-d.-l.-P.; resources, C.F.P. and D.P.-C.; data curation, J.M.D.-d.-l.-M. and A.L.M.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M., D.P.-C., and C.F.-d.-l.-P.; writing—review and editing, R.M., D.P.-C., and C.F.-d.-l.-P.; visualization, J.M.D.-d.-l.-M., A.L.M.-R., J.P.-C., and J.G.-R.; supervision, D.P.-C.; project administration, D.P.-C. and C.F.-d.-l.-P.; funding acquisition, none.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all those who participated in this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The World Health Organization (WHO) [1] states that physical inactivity is the fourth leading tisk factor for mortality worldwide (6% of deaths) after hypertension (13%), tobacco use (9%), excess glucose (6%), ahead of obesity (5%). The WHO [1] recommends 150 min per week of moderate aerobic physical activity or 75 min per week of vigorous aerobic physical activity or a combination of both. In Spain, the National Health Survey in Spain in 2017 [2] describes how 36.04% of the interviewees perceive themselves to be sedentary in their free time. This figure varies according to nationality, with 35.02% of individuals born in Spain admitting to being sedentary compared to 43.18% of individuals whose country of origin was not Spanish (immigrants). This difference increased in individuals aged between 15 and 24 years old by more than 10 points, and by 12 points in individuals aged between 25 and 64 years old. Immigrant men and women are more sedentary compared to Spanish men and women in the same age groups. However, minors of foreign nationality are more active in their free time than natives (up to six points difference among sexes).

Previous studies [3-7] conducted in the USA and European countries show that children with foreign parents were less physically active than children with native parents. Griffiths et al. [6] described how, in children over the age of seven with immigrant parents, 40% had a level of physical activity considered “adequate” compared to 50% of children with native British parents. Recent European studies show that young immigrants have more difficulty accessing sports clubs and are less physically active than natives [8-10]. However, the study by Reimers et al. shows that foreigners participate much more in the extracurricular activities offered at educational centers [8]. The difference in the manner in which native people and foreigners practice physical activity can change when immigrants have been in the country longer or if they are second-generation immigrants [11,12]. This difference decreases if the children are second-generation immigrants [4].

Physical activity in children and adolescents becomes important in relation to obesity. Obesity is a non-transmittable disease considered by the WHO as the fifth mortality factor in the world [1]. Obesity in children and adolescents is a very important factor in early metabolic syndrome and the development of cardiorespiratory diseases [13]. It is a major health risk, although it can be overcome through physical activity [14], In Spain, according to the National Health Survey [2], Spaniards show a higher percentage of overweight and/or obesity than the immigrant population. However, between 18 and 24 years of age, the immigrant population is more overweight and/or obese than the native population (32.95% versus 24.09% respectively). Foreign women, present greater overweight and obesity between 18 and 64 years of age, compared with Spanish women. In the case of children, there are higher rates of obesity among Spanish children than in immigrant children, in both sexes. These findings are in contrast with a report by Marín-Guerrero et al. [15] in the Community of Madrid who reported a high prevalence of obesity among the foreign population. A review published in 2014 [16] also demonstrated this prevalence of obesity among the immigrant population.

Other factors, such as environmental and/or socio-ecological factors influence the practice of physical activity or the prevalence of obesity [17-20]. Previous qualitative studies [7,11,21] reported that the factors that limit the practice of physical activity among immigrant children are both environmental barriers (insecurity, lack of sports or leisure resources, and lack of transportation), and socioeconomic barriers (lack of time or income), as well as cultural barriers (religion/beliefs, educational level, language, or gender inequality), which may prevent or limit the practice of physical activity among immigrant children, compared to native children. In addition, the parents’ sporting and eating behavior are also relevant factors in children’s behavior [14,22,23], as they act as role models. Martínez-Andrés et al. [24] describe how parents organize family life according to their own perspectives and priorities, putting educational activities first and leaving physical leisure activities for later.

In Spain, the immigrant population represents 10% of the total population in 2019 [25], and it is predicted that the immigrant population will represent up to 20% of the total population of Spain in 2033 [26]. This increase in population means that new families will be incorporated, with habits and customs, which could be subject to risk and/or protective factors such as physical activity or sedentary behavior. At this point, the authors believe that the parents’ perspective is fundamental in order to establish adherence to healthy habits such as physical activity.

The questions guiding this study are: How do immigrant parents perceive physical activity? What does it mean to them? Do they consider that exercise to be an educational asset or a healthy lifestyle habit that is passed on to their children? Answering these questions may help to understand the role of parents in the practice of physical activity among immigrant children and adolescents and in relation to the acquisition of healthy habits. The aim of this study was to describe the perspectives of immigrant parents on physical activity and how this applies to their children.

The study began in February 2017 and was completed in June 2017. Twelve participants were included (seven women and five men), with a mean age of 41. The participants came from different regions of South America (Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador and Honduras). All were defined as having a low or low/middle socio-economic level. The demographic characteristics and physical activity habits of participants are shown in Table 1.

The themes identified were: Physical Activity and Health, Socialization, The Need for Movement, Gender, Barriers, Educational Burden, Community Living and The Reason for Immigrating. The results are presented below with fragments of the participants#x02019; original narratives to justify the results obtained [33]. Additionally, Figure 1 shows our findings using a conceptual map [37].

The socio-demographic data shown in Table 1 contextualize the results obtained from the participants’ narratives. Accordingly, in order to understand the results, it is necessary to contextualize which participants provided narrations regarding their experience [27,33]. In this study, the participants were mostly middle-aged women, most of whom did not engage in physical activity in their free time and earned less than 1550 to 2200 euros per month.

This paper aimed to describe the meaning of children’s physical activity from the perspective of immigrant parents. Previous studies [3-5,11,24] show how young people and children whose parents are immigrants were less physically active than their native counterparts.

Our results coincide with previous studies [38] showing that physical activity is perceived by parents as a health benefit and should be practiced because of its physical and psychological effects. In addition, our participants perceived that physical activity also has a socializing effect. Similar results have been published by Carratalá and Carratalá [39] and Delgado [40], showing how physical activity is a socializing agent, in terms of integrating rules, as well as developing responsibility and a sense of companionship.

Physical activity is perceived as being very closely related to movement [41-44]. Our participants reported that in certain physical activities and sports there is a gender distribution. In Spain, the survey of sports habits published by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport [45], shows that boys mostly practice sports such as soccer, cycling and swimming, and girls mostly practice gymnastics, hiking and swimming.

In most interviews, participants compared their country of origin with Spain. They used the words “there and here” a lot. There is an important influence between what they knew before and what they know now, with important economic and cultural influences.

Parents find it difficult to be physically active. Previous studies describe how the lower the socioeconomic level, the less possibility of physical practice there is [11,46]. Participants in our study acknowledged that the availability of financial resources significantly influences the decisions made regarding their child’s physical activity. Our results highlight that participants prioritize the financial well-being of the family over any health or leisure activity. Bhatnagar et al. [4] describe how this situation tends to change in the following generations, because having access to greater financial resources (a more stable livelihood) allows the family’s priorities to be reorganized. Our results are in line with the qualitative study by Condon and McClean [12], describing that immigrants who are undergoing financial hardships must focus on improving the family economy, being unable to participate or promote the physical activity of their children. Foreigners do not have a socioeconomic level that allows them to justify an added economic expense, since the socioeconomic level of foreigners in Spain is low or medium [47]. According to the 2007 National Immigrant Survey, 40% of foreign nationals work in unskilled labor whereas 22% work in skilled labor [47]. These two categories have the lowest overall purchasing power [26].

There is also a barrier related to infrastructure. The neighborhoods (Southern area of Madrid, Spain), where the interviews took place, are not adapted in terms of the number of parks, sports or leisure facilities. The physical environment, with large parks or natural spaces, is a key factor for good physical practice. If the physical (urban) environment often appears as a barrier to the practice of sports, physical and leisure activities, this is exacerbated in the case of immigrant parents, who are used to having a more open and natural physical environment in their countries of origin.

Lack of time is another limiting factor. The parents in this study described having long and overwhelming working hours that prevent them from doing any physical activity. Reimers et al. [8] reported that many parents cannot enroll their children in sports activities, let alone participate in them together. In addition, Reimers et al. [8] identified reduced physical activity related to the difficulty in accessing sports clubs and centers.

The proposed schedules for organized sports activities were considered by some of our participants as an added difficulty, as they described them as incompatible with their work schedules and family life rhythms. Previous studies [24,48,49] state that workloads and family burdens may prevent children and parents from practicing physical activity. In our study, five of the participants had three or more children. A large family could explain the difficulties in reconciling and organizing the family’s daily routine when balancing the different activities, which could have an impact on enrolling their children in extracurricular or leisure activities.

Also, insecurity or fear of going out can influence the decision to take children to leisure areas. Owen et al. [50] and Motl et al. [51] describe insecurity as a barrier to sport. All these barriers coincide with previous studies [24,50-53] in research carried out in Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA.

The economic expense of certain physical activities (tuition, travel, etc.) could explain a decline in the practice of exercise among children of immigrant parents. In addition, the parent’s financial situation, together with a precarious job situation and long working hours, and the need to earn money and save it, condition the ability to spend money on their child’s physical activity practice. Condon and McClean [12] describe the difficulty of maintaining the physical health of family members, as opposed to the priority of financial health. Participants in the former study were aware of their children’s lack of physical activity, and acknowledged that they did not get enough exercise because of financial hardship, time constraints or feelings of insecurity in some neighborhoods [24]. Our results show how participants prioritize work and economic status over their children’s physical activity. This could be explained by the fact that our participants have been in Spain for less than five years. This means that the parents still have a precarious and/or vulnerable socioeconomic situation and need to find financial stability before they can incorporate the family and their children into other activities.

Finally, the importance of knowing the perspectives of parents regarding physical activity is underlined, as parents can play a crucial role in determining their children’s sedentary behaviors. Two recent studies in Asia [54,55] showed the mutually interdependent relationship between parents’ and children’s physical activity and screen-viewing behaviors, highlighting the impact on children’s health. The results show the potential mechanistic link between parents’ perspectives on physical activities and children’s health outcomes, showing that parents’ screen-viewing behaviors and rules may be associated with their children’s insufficient physical activity levels and overweight problems. In the opinion of the authors, future lines of intervention for pediatric overweight should consider the inclusion of educational and behavioral programs designed for parents, instead of focusing only on children [54].

This study has several limitations. First, we were unable to carry out a homogeneous grouping of immigrant parents by geographically defined areas. Secondly, we did not identify whether the children of the parents were born in Spain or were transferred from their country of origin. The authors believe that this limitation is controlled, since the aim of the study was to describe the perspective of the parents and not that of the children. Additionally, the present study included 12 participants, and 20 interviews have been performed. Previous qualitative studies [27,33,56] have described how the total number of participants included does not depend on a previous calculation of the sample size, rather it is based on the saturation or redundancy of the information obtained in the interviews. Turner-Bowker et al. [57] reported that 92–97% of the saturation can be analyzed after interview numbers 15 and 20. In addition, our results cannot be extrapolated to all immigrant parents who have children, due to the design used. Nonetheless, these results may help professionals understand parents’ experiences, and their difficulties in promoting physical activity and resources for their children. Finally, this study did not perform a cultural comparison between groups of native parents and immigrant parents.

This study describes the factors related to the physical activity of South American immigrant children from the parents’ perspective. Our results revealed that the immigrant parents who were recruited in this study perceived that their children’s physical activity was relevant and important to their future lives. However, certain barriers exist which limit and prevent the ability for foreign children to exercise, such as income, time availability or extended work shifts.

These results can be used to guide the programming and organization of physical activities in the school and community environment. It is also essential to provide policies to reconcile family and work, so that the lack of time is not a hindrance to the practice of physical activity. It is essential to create policies for financial aid targeted at the most disadvantaged families. In addition, it is necessary to invest in the creation of safe spaces and sports and leisure infrastructures to promote physical activity within the community.

A future line of research would be to carry out a cultural comparison between groups of immigrant and native parents, using a qualitative ethnographic design.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M. and D.P.-C.; methodology, D.P.-C., J.P.-C., J.G.-R. and R.M.; software, C.J.-A. and A.L.M.-R.; validation, J.P.-C. and J.G.-R.; formal analysis, R.M. and D.P.-C.; investigation, R.M. and D.P.-C.; resources, R.M. and D.P.-C.; data curation, C.J.-A. and A.L.M.-R.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M., D.P.-C., and J.G.-R.; writing—review and editing, R.M., D.P.-C., and J.G.-R.; visualization, C.J.-A., A.L.M.-R., J.P.-C., and J.G.-R.; supervision, D.P.-C.; project administration, D.P.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding

Acknowledgments: To the parish of Nuestra Señora de la Saleta in Alcorcón and the parish of Inmaculada Concepción de Nuestra Señora in Alcorcón, and to all the participants in this study. We also extend a special thanks to Isabel Quintero for her assistance with the write-up and review of this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Physical activity (PA) is defined as “ … any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle that requires energy expenditure” [1,2]. Physical activity is beneficial at all ages and is recommended as an active practice in early childhood, necessary for the healthy development of both children and adolescents. [3-5]. In addition, it prevents diseases such as heart disease, hypertension, or obesity in adulthood [3-5]. Furthermore, positive effects on mental health have also been demonstrated, such as a decreased presence of anxious-depressive symptoms in children and adolescents [6,7]. Physical inactivity and sedentary lifestyles have been identified as health-related behaviors that negatively impact quality of life during childhood and youth [2-4], noting that worldwide, 80% of adolescents are not sufficiently physically active [8]. Thus, the current recommendation for ages 5 to 17 is an average of 60 min per day of moderate to vigorous PA, mainly aerobic, at least 3 days per week [1,8].

The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals, highlighting how PE and opportunities for PA in schools contribute to promoting health and well-being and ensuring quality education in educational communities with different social realities [2,9]. In Europe, the increased immigration of recent decades has led to a large increase in cultural diversity among school-age students in educational contexts [10]. Consequently, educational communities formed by teachers, parents and students are a key element for integration and social cohesion, where the role of PE classes and PE teachers in the generation of inclusive communities for immigrants is highlighted [10]. The practice of PA in the school environment can contribute to improving interpersonal relationships and respect among the different perspectives and cultures that are part of the educational community [11,12], thus fostering feelings of inclusion and belonging to the community [13]. The feelings of inclusion and belonging favors the emotional well-being of immigrant children and adolescents and promotes and facilitates their adaptation to societies they have emigrated to [13].

In Spain, the practice of PA in the school environment has been studied from the perspective of children [14], parents [15-17] and teachers [10,15,18,19], both in the general population [14,17] as well as specifically referring to the immigrant population [10,15,16,18,19]. In the study by Martinez-Andrés et al. [14] on the perception of the barriers encountered for the practice of PA in children between 8 and 11 years of age, the opportunities for the practice of PA are determined by the schedules established by their parents, in which the difficulty of reconciling work and family life and the prioritization of other types of academic activities over the practice of PA, together with the perceived danger of the community environment, favor more sedentary habits among the children. These results are consistent with studies carried out from the parents’ perspective [15-17], in addition to identifying a greater difficulty for their children to participate in certain physical activities due to economic barriers [15–17], a greater difficulty of reconciling single-parent families, restriction of PA among children in informal contexts as a form of punishment, a lack of communication between the school and the family, the influence of the mass media [17], inadequacy of infrastructure and lack of natural environments for practice [15-17], excessive homework [15,16] and gender stereotypes and gender-related choices [10,15-17,20]. Moreover, Tamura et al. [21] identified that social environments of violence and insecurity in the neighborhoods where children and adolescents live are associated with a decrease in the practice of PA, representing the main structural barrier. These same authors recommend improving the spaces in which PA is carried out, such as parks and other open-air venues. Previous studies [22,23] point to the presence of crime in the neighborhood, the precariousness of the facilities where PA is performed [22,23], and high-traffic levels [23] as barriers to performing PA in children and adolescents in immigrant settings. Recently, Hu et al. [24], in their systematic review on factors influencing the performance of PA in children and adolescents, pointed to unsafe neighborhoods and inaccessibility of PA venues as barriers.

From the teachers’ point of view, different perspectives have been identified, both among PE teachers and among teachers of subjects that take place in the regular classroom (subjects such as mathematics, science, etc.) [18]. For example, the imbalance between previous schooling and the level of the course in which they are enrolled, and the lack of knowledge of the language, are identified as elements that distort children’s learning, according to teachers of classroom-taught subjects, while this issue is not perceived as a problem in the case of physical education (PE) classes [18]. Physical education teachers have been found to have an important role in promoting interculturality in Spanish schools [19]; therefore, the research on their perspective regarding PA practice in this population should be further expanded.

This study was based on the following research questions: How do PE teachers perceive PA in immigrant children and adolescents? What does it mean to them? Answering these questions may help to explain the role of PE teachers and their positioning regarding the promotion of PA practice among immigrant children and adolescents.

The aims were: (a) to describe the perspectives of PE teachers on PA and (b) barriers perceived and (c) to analyze the word frequency from interviews, to assess emotions and (d) to describe the polarity of their perspectives regarding PA.

The study began in September 2019 and ended in September 2020. Twenty participants were included, with a mean age of 40.9 years (SD 6.6) and with 15.55 years (SD 9.2) of PE teaching experience. Of the 20 participants, 13 were male and 7 were female. All participants were currently working in the southern area of the community of Madrid (Spain). Of the participants included, 8 did not believe in any religion, whereas 12 considered themselves to be Catholic Christians. Of the latter, six defined themselves as practising Catholics.

The word cloud revealed that ‘Caribbean’, ‘Latin’ and ‘population’ were the most repeated terms, followed by ‘passive’, ‘Africa’, ‘street’, ‘movement’ and ‘overweight’. See Figure 1.

The sentiment analysis regarding the research questions showed a prevalence of positive emotions (Figure 2A,B). In contrast, according to the Afinn dictionary there is a slight predominance of negative emotions, especially scores of —1, against positive scores of 1 and 2 (Figure 2C). The associated emotions are those of trust and anticipation, followed by fear and joy (Figure 2A).

The interviews presented a polarity of 0.049 ± 0.339, reporting a slight trend to more positive emotions, mainly on account of the presence of extreme positive values (Figure 3) regarding the research questions.

Our findings highlight that, according to the perspective of PE teachers, the educational level of immigrant parents can influence their children’s PA. The survey on the immigrant population in the community of Madrid in 2016 [41] shows that 30% of the immigrant population presented a basic level of education. In Spain, the 2017 national health survey [42] described that the practice of PA was inversely proportional to the families’ level of education. The authors believe that a low level of education could explain a lack of awareness of the benefits of PA on the child’s health and development. The participants in the present study perceived how immigrant families linked PA to leisure and entertainment, giving more importance to other subjects. Along this line, Trigwell et al. [43], show how families from different ethnic communities prioritize educational achievement (based on subjects such as mathematics, science) over PA.

Our results show how family finances can influence the ability to engage in certain physical-sports activities. There are no published data to date on the enrollment of immigrant children and youth in IPAFD programs. The national survey of immigrants in Spain [44] describes that 40% of the immigrant population perform manual or low-skilled jobs, and 22% perform manual jobs that require specific prior training. This emphasizes that many immigrants hold precarious jobs, with low incomes and long working hours. The authors believe that families enter a vicious circle, where the lower the level of education, the less qualified and less well paid the work is, resulting in a lack of sufficient economic resources to enroll their children in extracurricular sports activities, and a decreased practice of PA.

Physical education and sport are important tools in the process of integrating people into society. Lleixà [45] describes how PE is a space for meeting and communication that promotes the relationship between people from different cultures. According to the UNESCO, one of the objectives of PE and sport is to promote proximity between people and individuals [46]. In addition, the International Federation of Physical Education [47] establishes that PE must be a means of combating discrimination and social exclusion. Previous studies [48] show how certain communities may have a more isolated character and less interaction with other communities. Acculturation or assimilation of the host culture of immigrant families is related to the integration of children into society and can be a factor in the acquisition of habits, such as the practice of PA [49,50] Gerber et al. [49] point out that the higher the degree of acculturation of people in a new society, or the longer the stay in the country, the greater the possibilities of practicing PA. Moreover, the lower the level of acculturation in the population, the lower their participation in PA [51-53].

Additionally, there are differences between children and adolescents concerning their attitude towards PE lessons. Previous studies report that interest towards PA practice and PE decreases as students get older [54-56]. Gómez Rijo et al. [56] describe how the motivation of adolescents in secondary education towards PE practice is lower than that of primary school students. According to Fraile Aranda & Catalina Sancho [57], primary school students tend to feel more skillful at a sporting level than secondary school students. Overall, secondary students have a lower self-concept regarding their ability to perform PA compared to younger students [57].

Among teachers, there are also differences in their perception and orientation towards PA in primary and secondary education influenced by the school curriculum [58,59]. Primary PE teachers orientate learning towards attitudinal and self-realization goals, while secondary school teachers give more importance to procedural and conceptual learning, developing a greater social responsibility [58]. As a result, primary school teachers are more oriented towards games and global developmental work, while secondary school teachers are oriented towards more social skills development. However, Sicilia Camacho et al. [59] point out that in primary education, priority should be given to the development of social relations whereas in secondary education the focus should be on the acquisition of healthy habits.

Another key point is the role of parents as role models for PA practice. Previous studies [60,61] show how parents are an influence on adherence to PA. The more PA practiced by parents in their free time, the more likely their children are to develop similar habits. The authors believe that when parents practice PA, the family has a positive attitude towards PA and the subject of PE, and this can facilitate the practice of PA in their children. However, it should be emphasized that cultural components and/or beliefs can condition PA, particularly in the case of women. This may lead to the existence of a cultural conception of motor activity or motor development in children that is different from that of girls and boys [48,62]. Previous studies [18,63] describe how immigrant girls present a lower level of physical condition and less motor skills when it comes to collective activities, which may result in inhibition and self-exclusion from the sports space.

Most of the participants described religious beliefs as a possible barrier to the practice of PA, in relation to girls from the Maghrebi community. Capllonch et al. [64] describe how certain religious beliefs may limit the practice of PA among female members of the community, aspects such as exposing naked body parts (swimming, athletics), training or sharing PA with males, could prevent girls from participating in sports activities [61,65]. Moreover, previous studies [62] have stressed the need for teacher training on the reality of immigration and especially on the understanding of the cultural aspects of the Maghrebi and Muslim communities. Dagkas et al. [62] in England, describe how PA practice can be adapted for Maghrebi girls while respecting cultural and religious precepts and complying with school rules.

According to our findings, teachers report that girls show less initiative for practicing PA. In Spain, Martínez Baena et al. [66] describe how in students over 13 years of age, 23.1% of the girls practiced PA through obligation, whereas 15.7% acknowledged that they did not practice PA out of laziness. In addition, Flores [48], in a study on multicultural reality and PE teachers, described how immigrant girls claimed to have very little interest and passivity towards the subject of PE.

Regarding differences in teachers’ and parents’ perspectives on PE, Porcuna & Rodríguez-Martín [67] reported that both parents and teachers agree that they can act as role models for children and adolescents, which can positively and negatively influence them to practice PA. Similarly, they agree that there are environmental barriers to PA, such as high workloads, lack of parental time, or the lack of spaces where PA can be carried out [67]. However, in the same study, Porcuna & Rodríguez-Martín [67] described that while teachers demanded greater collaboration between parents and teachers, parents demanded to receive more information from teachers on how to promote PA outside the school context [67]. Similarly, from the parents’ perspective, sex and gender are identified as determining factors in the practice of PA [10,15-17,20], along with economic barriers and lack of infrastructure for PA [15-17].

It should be noted that of the three dictionaries used to identify the participants’ feelings towards the research questions, two show a positive tendency in their discourse on PA and immigrant children and youth. Only one of the dictionaries used, Afinn, showed negative feelings, but with a percentage very close to positivity. Even though the teachers in the thematic analysis displayed a critical view of the practice of PA in immigrant children, identifying numerous barriers, their discourse tended to be positive, based on the text analysis carried out.

The results of this study reveal the perspective of PE teachers on aspects that may condition the practice of PA in immigrant children and adolescents. This perspective is the object of the study; however, it does not mean that it represents, coincides with or is contrary to the perspective or beliefs of other participants involved in the practice of PA, such as parents and students. This study has several limitations. First, a small number of participants were included. The present study has included 20 participants. Previous qualitative studies [25,30] describe how the total number of participants included does not depend on a previous calculation of the sample size; rather, it is based on the saturation or redundancy of the information obtained in the interviews. Turner-Bowker et al. [68] reported that 92-97% of the saturation can be analyzed after interview number 15 and 20. Secondly, the teachers included in the study were not part of the liaison classrooms, classrooms intended for the support and adaptation of immigrant children/adolescents joining the school. This could influence the results. In addition, teachers were not asked about the process of teaching PE to children and adolescents, which may reveal differences in the performance of PA. Finally, the qualitative nature of this study, gathering the perspective and experiences of a group of PE teachers concerning a certain phenomenon, cannot be generalized. However, it allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon from their perspective.

Our findings help further our understanding of the barriers related to PA in immigrant children and youth in Spain such as giving more importance to certain subjects because of their job prospects, having low economic resources, the lack of role models in the family for the practice of PA, the formation of closed groups for PA practice among students, and the limitation of PA in girls due to gender differences. One of the strengths of this study is that it describes the barriers for performing PA among immigrant children from the perspective of the PE teachers.

Concerning the implications for teaching, these findings may help PE teachers to identify elements such as family issues, beliefs, and economical issues that can condition PA. Furthermore, these results can help young or inexperienced teachers to plan and program the teaching of PE towards the needs of immigrant pupils by promoting greater participation, considering their possible limitations and perspectives. Further, these findings may be considered for the design and implementation of PA programs in certain social contexts. It is important for PA programs to: (a) analyze the academic curriculum and devote increased time to PA, (b) provide financial support to families who have limited resources in order to cover any associated costs related to children’s sports practice, and (c) promote the organization of sports activities and multicultural games in community settings.

Future lines of research should include the perspective of other participants, such as students and parents, regarding PA. In addition, it is important to examine the barriers for practicing PA in different contexts (school environment, neighborhood), and identify any obstacles for the practice of PA among immigrant students of different nationalities, also from a gender perspective.

Supplementary Materials: The following are available Online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/103390/ijerphl8115598/.sl, Figure SI Example of codification process.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.M. and D.P.-C.; methodology, D.P.-C., J.P.-C., J.G.-R. and R.M.; software, J.N.C.-Z.; validation, J.P.-C. and J.G.-R.; formal analysis, R.M., J.N.C.-Z. and D.P.-C.; investigation, R.M. and D.P.-C.; resources, R.M. and D.P.-C.; data curation, P.C.-G. and C.G.-B.; writing—original draft preparation, R.M., D.P.-C., J.G.-R. and J.P.-C.; writing—review and editing, R.M., D.P.-C., J.G.-R. and J.P.-C.; visualization, P.C.-G., C.G.-B., E.S.-H. and S.G.G.-C.; supervision, D.P.-C.; project administration, D.P.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University Rey Juan Carlos (code: 3001201702417/8 November 2018).

Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement: Personal data are stored in the data protection file of the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. This is a qualitative research we could not provide transcribed files, we followed Spanish Organic Law on Protection of Personal Data and guarantee of digital rights (2018).

Acknowledgments: We extend a special thanks to Isabel Quintero for her assistance with the write-up of this study.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.